The Albatross: Giants of the Sky

An image of Laysan Albatross showing its large wingspan taken by Monte M. Taylor

Imagine you just got married and for your honeymoon you decide to go to the Aleutian Islands in Alaska to go whale watching. However, while on the boat you spot something far greater than a glimpse of a whale 100 yards away; you spot a Laysan Albatross gliding on the air right above you. To the untrained eye this looks just like any run-of-the-mill “sea gull”, except this "sea gull" has a wingspan 6 feet 8 inches long! What is even more fascinating than its sheer size is that the Laysan is actually the small cousin in the Albatross family. Laysan’s big cousin the Wandering Albatross, found in the southern hemisphere, has a wingspan of nearly 11 feet, making it the largest living bird in the world. I know, that makes the Laysan seem kind of lame now, but bear with me, it’s still quite fascinating. (All About Birds).

You see, not only is the Laysan Albatross’s wingspan as long as LeBron James is tall, but they represent great longevity. The oldest recorded Laysan is still living and is 63 years old! It takes 8 to 9 years for these birds to become sexually active and have successful breeding. A fascinating evolutionary adaptation of these birds is that they can drink salt water without becoming dehydrated. They do this by excreting the salts out of two bony tubes on their bill. Albatross’ and other birds that do this are appropriately referred to as “tubenoses” for this action. (All about birds). Granted, their populations are not strong in number, but what makes these birds really remarkable is that they are still alive after facing the challenges posed by humans. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) gives the level of concern for the Laysan Albatross as Near Threatened, and for the Black-footed and Short-tailed Albatrosses (who share range distributions with the Laysan) as Vulnerable and Endangered, respectfully. (IUCN Red List).

In a study performed by Lindsay C. Young and others, the life history of the Laysan in the Hawaiian Islands was given. It said that fossil evidence proves that the birds have been around in the Hawaiian Islands before humans were. Additionally, it mentioned how their population has plummeted since the early 20th century until the birds were eventually extirpated from the eight main Hawaiian Islands. This extirpation was due to a sundry of reasons, including; "human consumption, feather collecting, egg collection, predation from introduced mammals and military activities" (Young1). Through awareness and programs to help strengthen the population the birds are back on the islands in relatively strong numbers.

In another study led by Lindsay C. Young, two colonies of Laysan Albatross’ were examined for the amount of plastic debris fed to the young. By making the young puke up their meals, the amount of plastic ingested could be calculated. The one colony had approximately 10x more plastic fed to the young than the other, which is attributed to their closer proximity to the Western Garbage Patch. This just goes to show the more trash that is around, the more these birds will eat and feed their young (Young2).

Another study, which was performed by Eric Gilman looked at various seabirds as bycatch for many commercial fishing vessels. Some of the quick findings were that in the nine years of this study, there were 371 Laysan albatrosses retrieved (78% of which were alive). There were 144 retrieved Black-footed Albatrosses (69% of which were alive). Although the majority of these birds lived, there is still a substantial number of birds that were killed. Luckily, there are ways to limit the amount of birds caught. The Hawaiian longline swordfish fishery has required fisherman to begin incorporating these methods that are safer for the birds. Before the regulations, 0.55 seabirds were caught per 1000 hooks, but now only 0.04 seabirds are caught. (Gillman).

It is fantastic that the birds are doing better than in the past and that people are becoming more aware of the situation. It may seem as though there is little that can be done by people who don’t live on the Pacific coast, but we still have a role. We must reduce littering, no matter where we are for there are species all over the world who are suffering from our litter in the oceans. Additionally, The Cornell Lab of Ornithology states that by not eating any fish caught by longline fisheries we can help promote safer fishing habits that don’t negatively impact the Albatrosses and other seabirds.

To show how charming and neat these birds can be, the courtship dance of the Laysan is shown in this video (above). 

References:
All About Birds. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology, N.D. Web. 22 March 2014.

Gilman, Eric, et al. “Mitigation Seabird Bycatch during Hauling by Pelagic Longline Vessels.” PLoS ONE 9:1 (Jan 2014): 1-12. Web. IUCN 2013.

IUCN Red List.International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. n.d. Web. 22 March 2014.

Young, Lindsey C. et al. “Bringing Home the Trash: Do Colony-Based Differences in Foraging Distribution lead to Increased Plastic Ingestion in Laysan Albatrosses?” PLoS ONE 4:10 (2009): 1-9. Web.

Young, Lindsay C. et al. “Demography and Natural History of Laysan Albatross on Oahu, Hawaii.” The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 121.4 (2009): 722-729. Web.

Whalegeek. “Dancing Laysan Albatrosses.” Video. YouTube. YouTube, 8 May 2010. Web. 22 March 2014.

Overfishing and The Future of the Oceans

We've discussed the threat of over fishing multiple times in and outside of class, but it still makes me curious about what the oceans will be like in the future at the rate at which it is. The population of fish is nothing new and in fact is a topic that has been discussed over and over again. Two-thirds of Earth is covered in water. According to a video that first made me more curious about this topic, global fish catches since the 1950's era have quadrupled and about one-hundred million TONS of fish are caught from the oceans each year. Let's take a moment and realize the sheer craziness of that, because in my mind that is such an astonishingly huge number.


Think about it. With the drastic amounts of fish that are caught in the ocean per year, it is estimated that in about 30 years the seas will be dried up and the fish gone along with it. There is a specific online video that is about an hour long, but so interesting and with so many facts I didn't even know about. Check out this website and see what is proposed in the Netherlands.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V325y7QCg3c

 There are 6 out of the 7 species of sea turtles that are endangered by the long lines that are produced by fisheries. They attract a vast number of organisms such as turtles, sharks and fish, and so catching so many species will create endangerment that needs to be put more emphasis on. Change of how we as humans manage the vast species of the oceans, by the year 2048, the seafood will be off all menus.

According to one study, a decline in seafood has occured since the 90's. But all the while, people have become educated with the knowledge that fish is incredibly healthy and so the supply of fish decrease as the demand has increased. All the while, this study suggests that it will take more than just the will of the people but political help from the government to help stop this dilemma from occurring. Not only is fish consumption good for the body in terms of the brain and nervous system, but the oils of fish taken through omega-3. Fish only have 3-5% oil, so when you think about it, to make a liter of oil that gets transferred to pills that are sold in the drug store for increasing concentration, memory and health overall, it take a lot of fish. Is that necessary? Therefore, I think it needs to be stressed that overfishing is overrated and in time it wilnot only hurt the oceans but us as humans as well.

Reference:
http://daniel.krupka.free.fr/docs_references/20_menaces/40_surpeche/Overfishing%20Could%20Take%20Seafood%20Off%20the%20Menu%20by%202048_%20Scientific%20American.pdf

Evaluation of the Effects of Various Chemicals on Discharge of and Pain Caused by Jellyfish Nematocysts

Portuguese Man-of-War (Physalia physalis).

http://images.nationalgeographic.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/006/cache/man-of-war_620_600x450.jpg

This study evaluated the effect of well-known remedies on the discharge of nematocysts in three species of Cnidarians: the sea nettle (Chrysaora quinquecirrha), sea wasp (Chiropsalmus quadrumanus) and the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis).  The remedies tested include acetic acid, ammonia, meat tenderizer, baking soda, and urea.  These remedies were evaluated to determine whether they stimulated or inhibited nematocyst discharge and if they brought relief to testers who were exposed to jellyfish tentacles.  It was found that many of the remedies did not relieve the pain and it actually stimulated nematocyst discharge.  However, immediate relief was experienced with lidocaine, a common anesthetic.  Exposure of the tentacle to lidocaine prevented nematocyst discharge when preceding exposure to acetic acid, ethanol, ammonia or bromelain.  Based on these observations, it is possible that lidocaine blocks the sodium and/or calcium channels of the nematocysts, preventing discharge.  The nematocysts of organisms in Phylum Cnidaria are hollow tubules in a saline solution containing neurotoxins.  Typical symptoms of jellyfish stings include pain, localized areas of swelling, redness and bleeding.  Used for defense, both mechanical and chemical stimuli cause nematocysts to be discharged.  With an increase in the number of envenomations in coastal beaches around the world, this study aimed to answer the question if traditionally used methods have effect on nematocyst discharge or if they dampened the pain associated with being stung.

Specimens were collected in coastal waters and tentacles were clipped and transferred to seawater.  These tentacle pieces were added to wells containing 1mL of seawater and examined under a light microscope.  To determine whether the chemical remedies had an effect on the nematocysts, 100µL of each chemical was added and observations were noted.  In a separate experiment, lidocaine was first added to the wells and then after one minute, each chemical was added in separate well plates.  A camera was attached to the light microscope to capture nematocyst discharging, and discharged nematocysts were counted.

During the human skin exposures, sea nettle and sea wasp tentacles were used.  Two of the authors exposed their inner arm to the tentacles over a period of 20 days with only one treatment per day.  Observations of skin redness before and after the addition of chemicals were made by outside observers.  Notes were taken of the stinging sensation as well. 

It was determined that chemicals traditionally used to treat jellyfish stings were found to stimulate nematocyst discharge and provided little or no relief from the pain and stinging sensation.  Lidocaine appears to provide relief by acting as an anesthetic and by preventing further nematocyst discharge.  Although blocking the pain, it did not prevent redness on the skin.  Also, when first applying lidocaine, then acetic acid or ammonia, the nematocyst discharge was prevented.  Overall, the best treatment option for jellyfish stings appear to be with the anesthetic lidocaine, as it blocks sodium ion channels in nerves that sense pain.            

Reference:

Birsa, L. M., Verity, P. G., & Lee, R. F. (2010). Evaluation of the effects of various chemicals on discharge of and pain caused by jellyfish nematocysts. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology:Toxicology and Pharmacology, 151, 426-430.

 

 

 

Deep Sea Anglerfish

(FishBase)

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Lophiiformes

Family: Melanocetidae

Genus: Melanocetius

Species: johnsonii

(Australian Museum)

Melanocetus johnsonii, the Humpback Anglerfish, is a type of deep sea anglerfish that lives in depths about  100- 4,500 meters (FiseBase) and can be found worldwide. It is also called the Black Seadevil. They can reach up to about 5in in length. This anglerfish gets its name from their dorsal spine- it makes their back look humped. The spine also leads to the photophore atop of their head. The body of this anglerfish is round, and it has a large mouth with teeth that angle inward. Humpback Anglerfish can be brown, dark gray, or black. The skin of an anglerfish tend to be fleshy and light-reflective; this helps them adapt to their surroundings as well as defend themselves against predators. Fleshy skin helps the fish to stay warm since it is very cold at the depths that they live at. Having skin that reflects light also helps to not only hide themselves when they are using their lophophore, but other predators that use light to find prey will tend to look over the deep sea anglerfish because they would not be able to see them.

Obviously, the anglerfish's photophore is the characteristic that most people identify with. That, or most people think "that scary fish from Finding Nemo?" -- yes. This photophore dangles above their head and lights up. The anglerfish's prey is attracted to this light; If you remember the scene in Finding Nemo, you see Marlin and Dory swim toward the light thinking that it is just a beautiful little friend. (You can watch the scene here!)The anglerfish dangles the photophore to catch their prey's attention while the rest of their bodies stay completely still. They tend to keep their mouths open, and when their prey gets close enough, they will slam their mouths shut trapping their prey inside where they will then eat them; this is why their teeth are angled inwards- so their prey cannot escape. One thing that an anglerfish has the ability to do is extend their jaws and stomach to be able to eat and swallow prey that are twice its size. This is a great adaptation for the fish considering that there is not a lot of food in the depths of the ocean. Having the ability to expand their stomach comes in handy, because then they can conserve energy just in case they are not able to find food for a longer period of time. The video below gives a great look at a specimen of a different species of anglerfish; I thought it would be good to post, though, because you can see how large its stomach can expand to eat their prey.

(Natural History Museum Youtube Page)

Deep Sea Anglerfish have a really interesting way of reproducing; and by "really interesting", I mean really creepy. For one, male anglerfish are smaller than female anglerfish; "It is about the size of a small finger and black in color" (SeaSky). After a male anglerfish matures, their digestive systems degenerate. Obviously, if they do not have a digestive system, it makes it impossible to eat, let alone live. This is when the male anglerfish finds a female to attach to with his teeth. He is able to find a female based on pheromones that the females gives off. "Once he bites into their skin, he releases an enzyme that dissolves the skin of his mouth and that of her body" (SeaSky). After this, the male and female are essentially one, and the male will spend the rest of his life on the female. The female anglerfish can have multiple male anglerfish on her body at one time- usually up to seven males. When it comes to reproduction, "...when the female is ready to spawn, she already has a mate available" (SeaSky). A thin, gelatinous sheet containing the anglerfish's eggs floats in the water until the eggs hatch. The larvae then swim to the surface to eat plankton, and return to the deep sea when they become adults. The video below is another great video on how this reproduction strategy was discovered and how the anglerfish reproduce!

(Watch on Youtube)

Calcium Carbonate Acidification

Since the industrial revolution the Earth has faced an increase in CO2.  Approximately 1/3 of this CO2 is absorbed by the ocean.  However, this does not come without some consequences.  The ocean has experienced a .1 pH drop globally while at the moment might not seem like much but if continued could have some dire consequences on marine life.
When CO2 dissolves into the ocean carbonic acid is produced.  The carbonic acid then dissociates in the water releasing hydrogen and bicarbonate.  The increase in hydrogen results in the increase in acidity.  This removes calcium carbonate from the ocean which makes it more difficult for shelled organisms to form their shell.  The ocean exports about 45 to 65% of the calcium carbonate globally.   Even small changes in the ocean pH can lead to large changes in the ocean chemistry.
I plan on looking at how the distribution of calcium carbonate in the ocean has changed throughout the Earths history and what impact these changes could have on the oceans currently and in the future if this increase in acidity continues.  For simplicity sake I plan on only looking at the Atlantic Ocean but this might change as I read more articles and continue searching on this topic.  I also plan on looking how this change in acidity directly effects shelled creatures and the coral reef.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/JC081i015p02595/abstract;jsessionid=EACD7E11438ADB85721FA924D03C8FEA.f04t01?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5682/362.short
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0025322783900853
http://www.ocean-acidification.net/FAQacidity.html#HowOA

Sea Otters

The heaviest members of the weasel family, sea otters are also the second smallest marine mammals. Unlike other marine mammals, they do not have a layer of blubber to help them keep warm. Instead, sea otters have the densest fur in the animal kingdom which insulates them. As discussed in class, sea otters are a keystone species. As predators, sea otters are critical to maintaining the balance of the near-shore kelp ecosystems. Without sea otters, the undersea animals they prey on would devour the kelp forests off the coast that provide cover and food for many other marine animals. 

Sea otters eat urchins, abalone, mussels, clams, crabs, snails and about 40 other marine species. They eat approximately 25% of their weight in food each day to support their high metabolism. They live in shallow coastal waters off of the northern Pacific. Their historic range stretches from Japan, along the coast of Siberia and down to the Alaskan, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California coast. Otters tend to spend much of their lives in the water and can dive up to 330 feet when foraging for food . Sea otters often rest in coastal kelp forests, draping the kelp over their bodies to keep them from drifting away. They are also one of the few mammals other than primates known to use tools; they use small rocks or other objects to pry shellfish from rocks and to hammer them open. 

In my presentation, I plan to discuss more in depth how important sea otters are to kelp forests and to their surrounding community. I found multiple articles which examine what would happen if otters continue to decline, which appears to be happening due to the possibility of whale predation. Another important factor I came across was fur trade. 

These are just some details I plan to include and some sources I plan to use are:

structure in nearshore communities

whale predation

kelp forests

Shark Endangerment

Sharks are an essential part of the world's oceans. As the apex predators in most situations, it is their job to maintain the populations of a variety of species. Ridiculous numbers of sharks are being lost on a regular basis for reasons such as bycatch, illegal hunting, and a general disregard for their well-being. There are many steps that can be taken to reduce the numbers of these majestic creatures that are being killed off on a daily basis.

The first and one of the primary reasons for shark loss is bycatch. There were 26 different species of shark pulled in as bycatch off of the coast of southern Africa in a 2009 study. Of these species, six of them were listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature or IUCN, and one was listed as endangered. In this study it was estimated that 75,000 sharks are killed in this manner each year. This is very problematic as we are disregarding one of the most important creatures of the marine world. Steps need to be taken to reduce bycatch.

According to a 2013 study it is estimated that up to 100 million sharks are killed or captured per year. A lot of these sharks are being killed purely for their fins, as shark fins are used for such things as making soup. Fins from a great variety of sharks are sold in marketplaces around the world. The market for shark fins is very detrimental to a massive number of species, many of which are endangered. Heavier restrictions must be put into place to prevent this from continually happening so we can ensure that future generations will still be familiar with these creatures.

Although all is not lost, the situation is dire. According to the aforementioned study, there is about a ten year period in which we can take steps to ensure that these apex predators will be around for the next couple hundred years. There are several methods that can be put into effect such as shark tagging that can help discover patterns that will help to prevent all the needless shark casualties.

Refernces:
1. http://proxy.ashland.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=45446396&site=ehost-live

2. http://proxy.ashland.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=93981956&site=ehost-live

3. http://www.pacificsharks.org/bycatch.php